There has been much research
conducted on the weapons and military tactics employed in antiquity by the
Macedonians. This research can show how
effective the sarissa as used by the Macedonians was, as well as how important
it might have been to their military superiority. There have been two weapons used by the
Macedonians known by the word sarissa; the cavalry sarissa, or lance, and the
infantry sarissa, or pike[1]. This essay shall focus primarily on the
sarissa used by the foot soldiers, therefore the pike, and any reference to the
sarissa carried by the cavalry shall be for comparison purposes.
King Philip of Macedonia
attained power in 359BC[2]. As soon as he took power, Philip began to
reorganise and redevelop the army with many changes and upgrades to military
tactics. One of these upgrades that
Philip made was the invention of the sarissa for both the cavalry and the
infantry. “The development of the
sarissa was such that it surpassed any other weapons technology in the ancient
world and was one of the few examples in antiquity of a deliberate intentional
change of weapons by a known agent to achieve an advantage in combat; an early
example of research and development.”[3]
The creation of the sarissa
and the further development of the Macedonian phalanx are also discussed by Hammond. The sarissa was invented by Philip II when he
became king of Macedonia[4]. Hammond sited
three different sources from the Roman Empire
that talked about the training and improvements of the Macedonian infantry by
Philip. The first source that Hammond uses is Diodorus,
who states “…Philip…convene[d] them in assembly after assembly… altering for
the better the military units and equipping the men appropriately with weapons
of war he held continuous manoeuvres under arms and training exercise under
combat conditions. Indeed he invented
the close order and the equipment of the phalanx in imitation of the
shield-to-shield order of the heroes at Troy,
and he first put together the Macedonian phalanx.”[5]
These passages that Hammond
cites gives a timeline of the months between the death of Perdiccas III in
359BC and Philip’s battle against Bardylis in 358BC for when Philip put
together the first Macedonian phalanx[6]. Military training and manoeuvres before the
Hellenistic period are not documented very well and are quite rare. Due to this, Hammond surmises that all three
of his sources regarding Philip’s invention of the Macedonian phalanx and the
training of the pikemen, along with the invention of the sarissa would have
come from a common source which was most likely a contemporary of Philip’s, and
documented these activities at a time prior to Alexander’s achievements which
diverted attention away from Philip[7].
According to Hammond, the sarissa was a
highly specialised weapon, designed for fighting in the phalanx which is a
linear military formation approximately eight or more men deep. This weapon was not a common weapon and as
such was unsuitable for skirmishing, ambushing, street fighting, etc[8]. The sarissa used by the infantry (phalanx)
was a long shaft of wood with tips of iron on either end. The weaponhead of the sarissa was a sharp
iron blade. Above the blade curving back
up the shaft was a foreshaftgaurd of iron to protect the shaft from being
broken off by attack. The front of the
sarissa was balanced by another spiked iron piece at the other end of the
sarissa, called a buttspike[9]. The buttspike (also called a secoma) could be
planted in the ground to brace against charging horses. This buttspike also made the sarissa more
balanced and easier to handle.
Cornel wood was used to make
the shaft of the sarissa, as it had been used in spears and javelins from
around 700BC, due largely to its hardness, straightness and elasticity
properties[10]. According to the research of archaeological
evidence done by Manti, the dimensions of the infantry sarissa are as follows[11]:
- Four-sided tapering buttspike – 18 inches long, 7 inch long socket, 1 11/32 inches diameter socket, and a weight of 2.3 pounds.
- Pointed weaponhead with flared double edged blade – 20 3/16 inches long, 9 inch socket, 1 14/32 inches diameter socket, and a weight of 2.7 pounds.
- Tubular forshaftgaurd – 61 2/16 inches long, 13/32 to 1 10/32 inches socket, and the weight was not given.
Around 300BC the length of
the sarissa is stated to be sixteen paces, and issued to the infantry at
sixteen cubits, but in general use showed up at fourteen cubits[12]. Manti makes note that Arrian wrote cubit as
his unit of measure in one instance, he feels that Arrian’s use of poda to be
the more appropriate and significant.
Manti goes on to say that poda is usually translated into English as
foot, but believes that pace is more correct as it is actually the designation
for the measured step taken by a human being, particularly that of the
field-march step of the phalangite, or infantry[13]. The Macedonian cubit is 13.5 inches whereas
the Attic cubit is 18 inches[14]. This is important as some scholars tend to
use different cubits to measure the sarissa, and this results in differing
information. For the sake of this paper,
it will be assumed that Manti is correct in using the Macedonian cubit of 13.5
inches. Drawing from the literary
evidence he examined, Manti concludes that the infantry sarissa is longer than
the cavalry sarissa and the hoplite spear.
It is made in a variety of lengths; ten, twelve, and sixteen cubits, as
well as sixteen paces. However, in use
in the field it appeared at fourteen cubits[15].
The sarissa became an icon
of power and authority in Macedon and Greece by the time of
Alexander. In the Alexander mosaic in Naples, Alexander can be
seen wielding a sarissa. However, even
though mounted cavalry did have sarissas, the one depicted is an infantry
sarissa. As it is very improbable that
Alexander wielded the long infantry sarissa on horseback, and would be
impractical to have it for any reason, Manti concludes that this mosaic is a
political manoeuvre much like the Boscoreale mural[16]. Further, Manti goes on to say in his
footnotes on this subject that this sarissa underlines the legitimacy of the
Macedonian king as the king of Macedon since it is pictured in the context of
Darius fleeing the field of battle, and thus makes Alexander also the King of
Kings of all Persia and all of its empires by fact of royal conquest.
Continuing to use the
pictorial evidence, it can be seen that the sarissa fits the description of the
sarissa used by the phalanx due to it having a pointed buttspike, and a tubular
foreshaftgaurd near the weaponhead. Also
visible is a type of cord that is wrapped tightly around the shaft near the aft
end which will allow a pikeman to have the appropriate measured spacing for his
hands as well as make a solid grip, as over time with use the shaft of the
sarissa would become too smooth and slippery to hold tightly[17]. Also, had this been a cavalry lance, the
cording would have been replaced with a leather sling-type strap to assist with
holding while on horseback.
There was flexibility in the
phalanx to adjust the formations from the standard eight men deep stance. The Macedonians could compact and up to
double the depth of men to sixteen.
While in open formation, there was a four cubit spacing allowed for each
man[18]. This formation was used for speed, both in
attacking and in covering ground during marching. Also, it was used as a defence against enemy
chariots and wagons. The close order was
used for maneuvering on the battlefields and movements against a large
front. The Macedonians also used it when
facing less disciplined and organised troops.
The compacted order, (also called locked shield) was for closing with an
enemy that was equal to the pikemen in discipline. It was also used if hitting power from mass
was more important than the size of the military front, or when receiving a
charge from infantry or cavalry[19]. Men only took up one cubit in this
formation.
The Macedonian phalanx when
equipped with sarissas was usually eight men deep. This allowed approximately five weaponheads
to be projected forward of the first rank of men. This required very disciplined depth spacing
on the part of the pikemen. With the
structure of the fourteen cubit sarissa, four cubits were used by the distance
between the pikeman’s hands and the buttspike for balancing. This means that there were ten cubits
protruding to the front of the pikeman, resulting in four ranks of pikes
extending in front of the first rank of pikemen, staggered at two cubit
intervals. This spacing allowed the
sarissas to overlap and offer protection from attacking enemies to each other[20]. For example, the front rank’s sarissa would
be protected by the blade and foreshaftgaurd of that of the second rank’s
sarissas, with the third rank’s blade protruding to the point of the second’s
foreshaftgaurd, and so on continuing back.
This meant that any swordman that tried to cut the head off the sarissa
would have to reach in a distance of up to two cubits to get to the wooden
shaft, but would not be able to cut it off as it is protected by the sarissa
behind it. This made the sarissa
invulnerable to frontal assault from swordmen[21]. As Manti stated, “The Romans, each facing ten
to twelve pikes, were in this respect at a grave disadvantage with their short
swords and training not to cut but to thrust”[22].
When Philip II improved the
Macedonian infantry with the invention of the sarissa, he also changed the way
that they marched to increase their range and speed, as Greek armies did not
march very far overland. Philip had each
pikeman carry enough flour for thirty days and trained them to march 35 miles a
day carrying their supplies[23]. This made Philip’s infantry have a speed and
range that outdid everyone else in his time.
When Alexander campaigned on
the Balkans in 335BC, a clear demonstration of the effect that the sarissa and
the pikemen that wielded it had on peoples was seen. The phalanx used the sarissa to clear a way
through high-standing corn near the Danube. “When Getae saw the phalanx, they were
terrified… for the close order of the phalanx was frightening”[24]. A few months later, Alexander was moving
against the Illyrians. They also fled
the battlefield from fear when Alexander put on a display of his phalanx
changing formations while in movement[25]
The sarissa was not without
its limitations and weaknesses, however.
Markle points out some of these in his research, beginning with the fact
that the men from the second rank back were trapped in formation on either side
by the butts of the sarissas from the pikemen in front of them[26]. Also, the first rank back to the second last
rank were likewise trapped by the forward sections of the sarissas of the men
behind them. He continues to state that
in a mass such as this, in forward motion everyone would be pressing upon each
other, and this would result in an interweaving mix of sarissas and men that
render flanking maneuvers, turning, and strategic retreats impossible[27]. Further
to this, Markle continues to say that the phalanx was only able to be deployed
on level, unbroken ground. He supports
this claim by quoting Polybius ““…the phalanz has only…one kind of place in
which it can achieve its purpose… It requires level and smooth plains which
have no obstales such as ditches, clefts, ravines running together, ridges,
flowing rivers; for all of the aforementioned are sufficient to impede and
break up such a formation.”[28]
There were three ways that
Markle stated to counter the sarissa phalanx.
The first was by the enemy getting past all of the sarissas protruding
infront of the phalanx formation, grabbing hold of the sarissa, driving it into
the ground weaponhead first in order to have it become stuck, and then killing
the pikeman. This was very unlikely to
happen due to how well structured the Macedonian phalanx was. The second way was by attacking the phalanx
in the flank or from the rear. Markle
states that the length of the sarissas made it impossible for the pikemen to
turn and face the attackers. The last
way was to try and lure the phalanx onto unfavourable ground so as to cause a
gap to open up in the front line so that the pikemen could then be routed.[29] [30]
Yet another way to counter
the sarissa was with specialty units. Manti
mentions that there were swordmen called landsknecht doppelsoldner that had
been specially trained and equipped with longer swords to reach past the
pikehead and foreshaftgaurd in order to sever the shaft of the pike, and
received increased pay to compensate for the extra danger[31]. Also, Hammond
mentions that Onomarchus defeated Philip’s phalanx by luring him into a trap
where Onomarchus had hid his catapults behind a crescent shaped hill[32]. When Onomarchus feigned retreat, the
Macedonians followed and when they were in-between the catapults on either side
of the hill, the catapults opened fire and “confounded the Macedonian phalanx.”[33]
Bibliography
Hammond,
N. G. L. 1980. "Training in the use
of a sarissa and its effect in battle, 359-333 B. C." Antichthon , 14: pg. 53-63
Manti, Peter. 1992. "The sarissa of the Macedonian
infantry" Ancient World,
23:2, pg. 31-42
Markle
III, Minor M. 1977. "The Macedonian sarissa, spear and
related armor" American
Journal of Archaeology: The Journal of the Archaeological Institute of America,
81:3, pg. 323-339
Mixter,
J. R. 1992. "The length of the Macedonian sarissa
during the reigns of Philip II and Alexander the Great" Ancient World, 23:2, pg.
21-29
[1]
Manti p32
[2]
Mixter p21
[3]
Ibid
[4]
Hammond p54
[5]
Ibid p55
[6]
Ibid p56
[7]
Ibid
[8]
Hammond p53
[9]
Manti p31
[10]
Ibid p32
[11]
Ibid p36
[12]
Ibid p31
[13]
Ibid
[14]
Ibid p39
[15]
Ibid p32
[16]
Ibid p34
[17]
Ibid p36
[18]
Ibid p37
[19]
Ibid
[20]
Ibid p38
[21]
Ibid p39
[22]
Ibid
[23]
Hammond p57
[24]
Ibid p59
[25]
Ibid
[26]
Markle p332
[27]
Ibid
[28]
Ibid
[29]
Ibid p333
[30]
In his paper The Macedonian Sarissa,
Again, Manti discredits the majority of Markle’s work stating that he
(Markle) contradicts himself on most things and that he got the measurements
for the sarissa wrong, thus making his sample that he had made for him too
long, and thus throwing off all his research into how the sarissa was used and
how effective it was, and that had Markle used the proper cubit, he would have
seen that it was much more nimble and useable than the sample he had
created.
[31]
Manti p39
[32]
Hammond p60
[33]
Ibid
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